The Latest Developments of Air Transport

The commercial airline industry has grown from a few aircraft to that of a multi-billion pound industry. The Boeing 707 began a revolution in air travel when it entered service in1958.It was the first commercially successful jet aircraft. Since then aircraft manufacturers have strived to provide larger and more economical planes to aircraft companies. The basic appearance of commercial airliners has not changed much for over 50 years. Nevertheless, there has been a considerable increase in innovations and new technology within the aerospace industry. Advancements in engine efficiency, aerodynamics and new materials have all led to a significantly lower operating cost per seat mile of commercial aircraft. There have been a number of significant innovations, especially on the Boeing 787, the latest wide body jet to enter service. Composite materials are now been used in the commercial aircraft industry. The Boeing 787 is primarily constructed from composite materials. They are used in most primary structures, particularly the fuselage (see fig1). By using a unique one piece composite barrel construction, (See fig 2) the 787 eliminates the need for any fuselage lap joints, doubler longitudinal skin splices. This has a dramatic reduction in weight and drag. In addition, it also significantly reduces the amount of maintenance and inspections required. Panel construction in aircraft such as the Boeing 707 requires additional joints, fasteners and splice plates, resulting in increased weight and inspections. An example of a composite, which is used on the Boeing 787 is carbon laminate. It comprises of layers of carbon fibre that are impregnated with a polymer. Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopaedia.. 2011. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.thefreedictionary.com/composite+material. [Accessed 20th Novemberr 2011]. The use of composite materials ensures many advantages. They are lighter, stronger, do not corrode or fatigue, resist impacts better and are easier to examine during an inspection, compared with aluminium. Minor damage can be repaired at in less than an hour. Fig1 Corpu, (2007), plane [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.google.co.uk/imgres?q=composites+on+aircraf [Accessed 01 December 11]. Fig 2 New Airplane, (2007), 21st Century Fuselage Construction [ONLINE]. Available at: http://www.newairplane.com/787/design_highlights/#/VisionaryDesign/Composites/OnePieceBarrelConstruction [Accessed 01 December 11]. The most critical expense areas for aircraft fleets are fuel, maintenance and its residual costs. New aircraft have been designed and manufactured to lower these costs. Maintenance tasks have been reduced by 30 per cent, and inspections are required less frequently. A good example of this is the 787 which does not require its first heavy maintenance check until after 12 years of service. Another advantage of using composite materials, especially in the wing structure is that it gives aircraft such as the 787 a higher aspect ratio than previous aircraft, resulting in a higher Coefficient of Lift. A lighter aircraft will reduce fuel costs and therefore have a positive effect on the range equation. Advancements in aerodynamics have led to an increase in the overall efficiency of aircraft, becoming more fuel efficient by reducing drag. Components such as winglets and wingtip fences decrease vortices created at the wing tips which cause aerodynamic drag. Winglets | Airbus, a leading aircraft manufacturer. 2011. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.airbus.com/innovation/proven-concepts/in-design/winglets/. [Accessed 24th November 2011]. Raked wing tips create a greater degree of sweep on an aircraft wing. This enhances the wings efficiency, by increasing the aspect ratio of the wing, therefore decreasing the amount of lift induced drag produced by the aircraft. This kind of drag can be reduced by up to 6%.with the implication of raked wing tips. Blended winglets can be attached to the wing giving a level curve in place of a sharp angle reducing interference drag at the wing. Wikipedia. 2011. Wikipedia. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.wikipedia.com. [Accessed 24th November 2011]. Riblet technology is a surface modification which consists of minute streamwise ridges and valleys, it has been proven to reduce local turbulent skin friction by up to 6 % . Houghton, E.L, 2003. Aerodynamics for Engineering Students. 5th ed. Oxford: Heinemann (book publisher). On the Boeing 767 double drooped slotted fowler flaps are used, whereas on the later 787 a simple hinged flap with drooping spoilers are used creating smoother wing technology. This results in a decrease in fuel consumption, weight, smaller fairings and fewer parts therefore reducing maintenance. Www.cdti.es/recourses/doc/eventosCDTI/Aerodays(2011) [pdf ]. [Accessed 24th November 2011]. Recently Airbus has completed the first flight of its A320 test aircraft equipped with ‘sharklet' wing-tip. The sharklets can cut fuel burn by up to 3.5% over the current configuration with wing-tip fences and increase the maximum take-off weight by up to 3 tonnes. The engine with the higher value of specific impulse (Isp) is more efficient because it produces more thrust for the same amount of fuel. A higher or more favourable L/D ratio is typically one of the major goals in aircraft design. Using these higher values will obviously increase the range of an aircraft. The latest propulsion systems have advanced, improving the economics of aircraft. Early jet airliners had turbojet engines. These engines operated well at high altitudes and speeds, but had had a high fuel burn rate. When the turbo fan engine was introduced it could move a greater amount of air at lower speeds, than the turbo jet engine, as it had a large fan attached on the front. By enclosing the fan inside a cowling, the aerodynamics was better controlled. This reduced fuel consumption, compared to a turbojet. The next-generation engine technology is provided by Boeing's engine partners, General Electric and Rolls-Royce. The latest engines being the Rolls Royce Trent 1000 and the General Electric GEnx. These engines incorporate a bypass ratio of about 10, compared to the first turbo fan engines having ratios of about 7. The higher bypass ratio allows the engine to be quieter, with significantly reduce fuel consumption. This lowers cost for the 787 operators and reduces emissions, lessening the environmental impact of the aircraft. Chevrons on the nacelles significantly reduce shock cell noise in the aft cabin. Both the Trent 1000 and the GEnx engines are interchangeable at the wing of the 787. This reduces operating costs and gives the 787 liquidity and strong residual value. Both the Rolls Royce Trent 1000 and the GEnx eliminate the engine bleed air system and associated pneumatic system. This improves the reliability and efficiency of the aircraft by further reducing fuel consumption and maintenance costs. The electric system improves efficiency by removing only the power actually needed during each phase of flight. The aircraft have a health management system which monitors the electrical systems, improving the aircrafts productivity. General Electric recently delivered a new innovation in technology producing advanced composite material fan blades .The process results in a 100% defect-free, carbon-reinforced epoxy blade , which means no voids in the fibres. In order to accomplish this, advanced sensor and data acquisition systems were used. This technology will continue to be used on wide-body aircraft of the future, Resulting in lower cost, and greater efficiency. Duncan, Tom, 2010. Engines of Today. Commercial Airliners, 2, 8. An innovation to watch out for in the near future is the use of Titanium aluminide turbine blades. Titanium aluminide’s low density means that a turbine blade will be about half the weight of a blade made from a traditional nickel alloy blades. Reducing the density and the weight of an aircraft engine has huge benefits. Materials of the Future – Online Stuff – Science Museum London . 2011.. [ONLINE] Available at:http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/stories/materials_of_the_future.aspx. [Accessed 16 December 2011] Using the range equation you can calculate the range of an aircraft, if you have the value of the following components. R = distance flown (m) u = velocity (m/s) Isp = specific impulse (s) L/D = lift-to-drag ratio (dimensionless) Winitial = gross aircraft weight at the start of cruise (kg) Wfinal = gross weight at the end of cruise (kg) Houghton, E.L.H, 2003. Aerodynamics for engineering students.. 5th ed. Great Britain: Heinemann (book publisher) The engine with the higher value of specific impulse (Isp) is more efficient because it produces more thrust for the same amount of fuel. A higher or more favourable L/D ratio is typically one of the major goals in aircraft design. Using these higher values will obviously increase the range of an aircraft. The appearance of aircraft has not changed much over 50 years because when it was first designed the cone shaped fuselage with wings attached had good design and technology features. The process of designing and producing a new aircraft is very expensive and risky. There is enormous economic risk along with a large investment and liability risk. The (you bet your company curve) plot below shows the cumulative gain or loss in an aircraft project during its life. It was recently estimated that a new large airplane project at Boeing would take 20 billion dollars to develop. Origins of Commercial Aircraft. 2011. Origins of Commercial Aircraft. [ONLINE] Available at: http://adg.stanford.edu/aa241/intro/origins.html. [Accessed13 December 2011] Aircraft manufacturing companies are not likely to take risks on projects that rely on unproven technology. This is the reason that innovative concepts are not likely to be tried out on the next generation of commercial airliners and why aircraft such as the 787 look so much like the Boeing 707. Customers of commercial aircraft manufacturers can sell their planes which are basically the same appearance as 50 years ago. There is not enough financial gain to design an aircraft with a different appearance. In addition, passengers may prefer to board an aircraft that consist of a tube with wings rather than an aircraft in the shape of a large triangle. The new 787 Dreamliner is a prime example of how innovations in new airframe and propulsion technology can lead to a more efficient aircraft. From innovative composite materials to aerodynamics to propulsion technology the 787 has become 70% more fuel efficient than the 1950s-era four-engine Pratt & Whitney JT3D-powered Boeing 707s. This has considerably increased revenue potential through significantly better performance, improved fuel efficiency and lowered maintenance decreasing operating cost per seat mile of commercial aircraft.

The Ethnic Conflicts

Recent changes in American society have resulted in increasing number of minority students enrolling in colleges and universities. Differing views among these ethnic groups can sometimes cause conflicts for students of all races (Cozic 249). Some argue that students and universities benefit from these ethnic conflicts. Same time others believe that increasing racial diversity in American colleges and university has led to a decrease in the quality of education. People who support multiculturalism in universities believe that â€Å"students who can resolve conflict in racially diverse universities will be better prepared to succeed than students at universities that are more homogeneous†(Cozic 249). Conflict is expected, perhaps even healthy, in a social situation where people have different interests and compete for scarce resources (Duster 251). Some American schools are racially integrated, so â€Å"it is not surprising that students experience shock and tension when they arrive at their first experience of multiculturalism†(251). But shocks like this maybe a good preparation for future life. According to Duster, nowadays students are â€Å"far more competent, far more eligible, far more prepared than when this [Berkley] was an all-white university in 1950†³(252). Back in 1960s , when the campus was mainly white, almost every eligible student who applied to Berkley was admitted (252). But â€Å"when the United States changed its immigration laws in the 1970s, well-qualified candidates from China, Hong Kong, and Korea swelled the pool of applicants†(252). Suddenly, not everyone who was eligible could get in (252). The increasing number of minorities applying to universities created â€Å"increasingly ferocious competition at the same-sized admissions gate†(252). The media, so far has chosen to emphasize the beleaguered white student who has to adjust to affirmative action (252). Isn†t it a shame, stories imply, that these students are feeling uncomfortable in an environment that used to be their university (252). It isn†t theirs anymore (252). Since the demographics of the United States are changing at a fast rate, â€Å"shouldn†t the university population and curriculum reflect more of this new reality? â€Å"(252 – 53). Meanwhile, the quality of students at universities is only getting better. Duster implies that affirmative action exists because, â€Å"over the past two hundred years, blacks and Latinos have had a difficult time entering higher education, and that legacy hasn†t gone away†(253). There are economic barriers that restrict access to college for minorities. And these barriers aren†t disappearing. The smartest among them [Berkley students] also see that in a globalized economy, Berkley†s multiculturalism can make them better leaders†¦. (254). The opponents of cultural diversity believe that â€Å"affirmative action favors minorities whose average academic performance is unacceptably below university standards†(Cozic 257). D†Souza argues that the question is not whether universities should seek diversity but what kind of diversity. It seems that the primary form of diversity which universities should try to foster is diversity of mind (D†Souza 258). He says that â€Å"such diversity would enrich academic discourse, widen its parameters, multiply its objects of inquiry, and increase the probability of obscure and unlikely terrain being investigated†(258). According to D†Souza, the problem begins with a deep sense of embarrassment over the small number of minorities – blacks in particular – on campuses. University officials speak of themselves as more enlightened and progressive than the general population, so they feel guilty if the proportion of minorities at their institution is smaller than in surrounding society (259). As a consequence, universities agree to make herculean efforts to attract as many blacks, Hispanics, and other certified minorities as possible to their institutions (259). The number of minority applicants who would normally qualify for acceptance at selective universities is very small; therefore, in order to meet ambitious recruitment targets, affirmative action must entail fairly drastic compromises in admissions requirements (259). University leaders are willing to use unjust means to achieve their goal of equal representation, says D†Souza. For example, â€Å"the California legislature is considering measures to require all state colleges to accept black, Hispanic, white, and Asian students in proportion with their level in the population, regardless of disparity in academic preparation or qualifications among such groups† (259). Many selective universities are so famished for minority students that they will accept virtually anyone of the right color (260). For minority students, who struggled through high school, the courtship of selective universities comes as a welcome surprise. During their freshman year, many minority students discover that they are not prepared to the college work load and it is hard to keep up with another students. For minority students, especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds, these problems are often complicated by a difficult personal adjustment to a new environment (261). University leaders have discovered how displaced and unsettled minority freshmen can be, and typically respond by setting up counseling services and remedial education programs intended to assure blacks and Hispanics that they do belong, and that they can â€Å"catch up† with other students (261). For many minority undergraduates the university†s quest for racial equality produces a conspicuous academic inequality (261). In the minds of minority students, affirmative action is not a cause of their academic difficulties, but an excuse for white racism which is the real source of their problems (263).

Purpose of Life Essay

Are you really contented with your life? Do you even know the real purpose of life here on Earth? What is your purpose for waking up everyday? Why can you hear, see, smell, talk and think? What are you here for? Every life here on Earth has their own purpose of existence. The plants, they play a huge role on maintaining the cleanliness of our planet and the air we breathe. The animals, they serve as our food and source of life. But us humans, do we know our purpose? Of course, many would say yes, but then again is that our real purpose for living? According to the book â€Å"40 days of purpose† by Rick Warren, there are consequences of not knowing your purpose. One is, without knowing your purpose life will seem tiresome. Because if you do not know your purpose and so confusion will take control of you, and when that happens you just go with the flow like the river flowing into the sea. You just go round and round and back again. Second, without knowing your purpose life will seem unfulfilling. Like the saying goes history merely repeats itself because there is no contentment, no satisfaction at all. No matter how much we have we still ask for more. Third, without knowing your purpose life will seem uncontrollable. We often do things we think is right, but actually we are being deceived by the knowledge the world has put into us and not by our own knowledge that God has given us. But on the other hand, if you will know your purpose of living, there are also benefits from it. First, knowing the purpose of your life will give your life focus. Just like in a team, every team has one purpose and that is to attain a certain goal. Next is, knowing the purpose of your life will simply your life. In here comes fulfillment, contentment, joy and satisfaction. Third, knowing the purpose of your life will increase motivation in your life. Every good and bad things that happen in this world has a reason and a purpose, and it’s for us to find out. We only need to strive, work and be patient to discover it. Lastly, knowing the purpose of your life will prepare you for eternity. We all know that nothing is permanent in this world, we will all die in the future. But the question is are we ready when that time comes? Are we able to comply with the purpose where God has placed us? If you feel tired, unfulfilled and uncontrollable then it means that you are still in the process of knowing your purpose. But, if you are focused, living a simple life, motivated and prepared for the future, for eternity then you are living the purpose of God in your life. And so are you living with the purpose or are you leaving your purpose? Thank you! And God bless!

CRJS300 U3IP Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

CRJS300 U3IP - Research Paper Example The judicial branches of the federal state and federal government apply and interpret the law. The two systems are independent of the legislative and executive branches of government. The dual court of system was inherited during the colonial period. By 1789 when the U.S first mandated its constitution, the thirteen colonies had their own court system relating to the English way. The two systems developed alongside each other exercising their legal powers concurrently and at times overlapping the jurisdiction of one another. The federal system is less complicated compared to the state system. According to the U.S Constitution Article 111, it states that the Supreme Court has the highest judicial power in the United States. The federal judiciary has three main branches. The district courts are directly after the federal courts and deals with cases alleged to violating federal laws or constitution, cases involving federal states or government, maritime disputes, and cases involving citizens of different countries, foreign government or cases involving citizens of different states. The district court is made up of ninety-two district and has one bench in each of the fifty states and one in Puerto Rico and the District of Columbia. These districts courts have over twenty judges. The president appoints judges. The United State court of appeals comes before the district court. They are higher than district court. They deal with matters involving appeals, cases of Exchange Commission Securities. The court of appeal is made up of eleven judicial in the fifty states of America and one in Columbia District. Each of the eleven circuits consists of six to twenty seven judges. Supreme Court is the highest in the federal system of the United State of America (Kusha, 2013). This is the only court mandated by the constitution. This court has consisted of Eight Associate Judges and One Judge

Preliminary ruling procedure and family reunification rules in the EU Term Paper

Preliminary ruling procedure and family reunification rules in the EU - Term Paper Example is no provision for family re-unification with children, and the best relief that Cathy can get is applying for help at the European Court of Justice. In her application, Cathy argued in terms of the right of free citizenship movement, and the family re-unification directive. However, the tribunal the local tribunal sought an application to the European Court of Justice seeking to identify whether these directives over rule the New Caledonian Law. In analyzing the freedom of freely moving, and whether the application of this law in New Caledonia amounts to overruling their laws, it is essential to define citizenship (Kochenov, 2012). Under article 17 (1) of the European Union laws, a citizen of the European Union is a person who has the citizenship of a state under the European Union. Section 12 of the amended European Commission treaty provides for certain rights to citizens of the European Union, and amongst them includes the right of non-discrimination, and this applicable within the provisions of the treaty. Article 18 of the amended EC treaty gives individuals the right of free movement within member’s states, but under some limitation. This right of free movement is limited to the spouse, and to their children. In the case involving the Home Department secretary of State, against Chen Lavette, the European Union Court of Justice ruled that a European Union Citizen, has the right of residing in member states of the European Union, and this right does not contravene the laws of the member state (Sawyer and Blitz, 2011). In the case law, Catherine Chen was born in Northern Ireland; and therefore entitled to receive the Irish Citizenship. Mrs. Chen obtained an Irish passport for her, with the intention of using her child’s status to reside in Wales. However the British authorities refused to grant her residency permit. The British authorities sought guidance from the European court, and it made a decision favorable to Mrs. Chen (Wiesbrock, 2010). The ECJ

Analyse the ways in which sociologist point to the social nature of Essay

Analyse the ways in which sociologist point to the social nature of living with cancer as a teenager - Essay Example This is the moment that human beings use to plan for their future lives and school life. It is also the most vibrant stage in the human lifecycle because teenagers experience major changes in their bodies and they discover who they are i.e. their personality traits, likes and dislikes. Teenagers are also highly active and interactive thereby developing a large social network. However, this is not always the case with teenagers suffering from cancer. The diagnosis, treatment and management of cancer greatly interfere with the activities of this critical growth stage (Wawsczczyk 2005). According to sociologists this is the stage in life where teenagers learn to be independent from their parents and family members thereby focusing more on their future. However, this is not possible for teenagers suffering from cancer because they need utmost support, attention and care from their parents and family members for emotional, psychological and social support. Therefore, such teenagers are taken a step back from discovering their independence, potential, strengths and weaknesses (Kleinman1988). Also the school life, social life and employment are put on hold for an unknown period of time, which is in contrast to what should be happening in their lives. This is because they become isolated from their peers, adults and school; which is an important social setting for a child’s growth. Cancer treatment is too severe for them to concentrate in school work or find lenient jobs that are conducive to their state of health. It is also quite common for insurance companies to cancel insurance policies for such teenagers because they are not in school. Insurance companies demand that all children still living under the care of their parents should be attending school to enjoy the benefits of the life insurance policies taken by their parents (Wawsczczyk 2005). Various surveys and research conducted by sociologists

Holistic Nursing Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Holistic Nursing - Research Paper Example The term complementary is preferred because it conveys the idea that these therapies are used together with, rather than as a replacement for biomedical treatment. On the other hand, the term alternative conveys the thought of a therapy being used in place of a biomedical treatment. Finding a good definition for complementary therapies has been an uphill task. Several definitions have been proposed. The complementary therapy is a broad area of medicine that is made up of health systems, practices and modalities plus their accompanying beliefs. In the definition, the term complementary medicine is used n place of complementary therapies. However, the word â€Å"medicine† can be changed to â€Å"therapies†. There are more than 1700 identified complementary therapies. Classifying these therapies is as daunting as coming up with their definition. This is because the therapies vary and they encompass indigenous cultural practices that are vastly unknown in the western world. Additional challenges come up because the mechanisms of action for many complementary therapies are not known (Lange & Zahourek & Mariano 2013). NCCAM has suggested the following groups for complementary therapy: biological based therapies, mind-body therapies, manipulative and body-based therapies and energy therapies. NCCAM has noted that a complementary therapy is no longer classified as a complementary therapy once it becomes an accepted treatment for specific conditions (NCCAM, 2005). The boundaries between complementary therapy and the dominant health care systems keep changing. As a result, what may be considered as complementary at a point in time can be recognized as part of the mainstream healthcare later on . Complementary and alternative therapies are healthcare topics that have instigated discussion and debate in a large way. Many people in the US have shown considerable interest in these topics. This is evident